William Blake's Poetry Collections

William Blake's triumvirate of collective poems, Songs of Innocence and Experience and The Marriage of Heaven and Hell come together to create the portrait of man and life stages. Throughout each collection, nature is used in different ways to accentuate the images Blake's poems were meant to evoke.

Songs of Innocence and Songs of Experience are two works that are defined by their names. In Songs of Innocence, the reader is taken back to childhood, where everything was a discovery, full of the beauty of nature. The animals in the collection are friendly and it is natural for the narrator to praise them, or even engage in conversation with them, "Pretty, pretty robin/ under leaves so green/ a happy blossom/ hears you sobbing, sobbing," (Greenblatt et al, 2006). 

Another example of the use of nature in Songs of Innocence would be the poem "The Flute", "Little lamb/ here I am/ come and lick/ my white neck," (Greenblatt et al, 2006). Questions of childhood, such as acceptance and the love of a mother and father are explored in a few of the poems, always circling back to nature as it pertains to a child's outlook. Even the introduction is harmonious with nature, "Piping down the valleys wild [...]/ On a cloud I saw a laughing child," (Greenblatt et al, 2006).

The introduction of the Innocence collection set the tone, just as the introduction of Songs of Experience sets the tone.

From brightness, innocence, and childhood, the reader is taken down darker, more adult avenues in Songs of Experience, "Hear the voice of the Bard! [...]/ whose ears have heard/ The Holy Word/ That walked among the ancient trees," (Greenblatt et al, 2006). Both collections depict nature and God, just in opposing fashions. New ideas are presented in this set of poems, like love, jealousy, misery, and poverty.

While Songs of Innocence and Experience are obviously complements to one another, The Marriage of Heaven and Hell could be considered the final piece of the trilogy. In connection, the two works could be allegories for childhood and adulthood, whereas The Marriage of Heaven and Hell could be the spiritual stage man takes in death and the afterlife; "The man kept his course along/ the vale of death," (Greenblatt et al, 2006).

References:

Greenblatt et al [Eds]. (2006). The Norton Anthology of English Literature: The Romantic Period Through the Twentieth Century [vol. 2].

Swift Wants to Fry Up Your Baby and Make Sweet Bacon!

During the early 1800's, a general strife was ongoing in Ireland, if one can deduce such facts from the allusions in Jonathon Swift's "A Modest Proposal". In the beginning of his satire, Swift draws in the reader by lamenting about the conditions of his town and country, "see the streets, the roads, the cabin doors, crowded with beggars of the female sex, followed by three, four, or six children, all in rags and importuning every passenger for an alms," (Greenblatt, et al, 2006). Apparently, the Irish countryside was flooded with beggars, many of them mothers with children in tow. Not only that, but the children born and raised in the degradation of perpetual poverty would only rise up to 'serve abroad' or likewise become beggars themselves. A last choice for the poor children of Ireland was to be a thief.

If the children truly wanted to aid society, Swift reasoned the only way for them to do that was to become a food source for the rich. The selling of children to the rich would help the oppressed people and made sense because, "this food will be somewhat dear, and therefore very proper for landlords, who, as they have already devoured most of the parents, seem to have the best title to the children," (Greenblatt et al, 2006). In humorous tones, Swift goes on to describe the problems that the selling and eating of children would solve, such as 'lessening the number of papists [priests]', help tenants pay their rent, cause mothers to value their children even more (the ones they intend to keep at least), and it would cause men to appreciate their wives more because they would be more valuable as breeders, like cows, (Greenblatt et al, 2006).

All humor aside, what Swift really would have liked to have seen solved was taxes, pride, vanity, nationalism, fair dealings among merchants and shopkeepers, empathy from landlords towards their tenants, and an all encompassing goodness of man that would not so easily sell out his country or fellow man for nothing, (Greenblatt et al, 2006). His arguments were given more meaning because of the flippant way he made fun of them to begin with. There was truth in his humor and passion in his ending arguments that could not be denied.

Revolutionary writing like "A Modest Proposal" is necessary because it serves the purpose of illuminating the wrongs of society. It may not illustrate how to correct them, but by articulating the problems, change can occur over time once people begin to understand what is wrong and how it can be amended.

References:

Greenblatt, et al. [Eds]. (2006). The norton anthology english literature (8th ed.). New York NY: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc.

Honor in Poetry

Poems are written to affect different genres and different moods. Elegies, epigraphs, and friendship are common themes found in poetry. An elegy is a piece of prose that is designed to strike a sadder note, and it can be used at a funeral. Thomas Gray wrote an elegy entitled, “Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard”. Death is apparent throughout the lines of the poem, but is most affluent in lines 83-84, “In still small Accents whisp’ring from the Ground/ A grateful Earnest of eternal Peace,” (Greenblatt et al, 2006, p. A9).

Epigraphs are quotations, comments, or lead-ins to other literary works. An epigraph adds to a story or poem to sum up the overall theme, or it may relate to a previous work. “The Answer” is an epigraph Anne Finch wrote in response to Alexander Pope’s “Impromtu to Lady Winchilsea”. Pope’s poem makes fun of women, their wit, and most importantly, Finch’s writing capabilities: “Fate doomed the fall of every female wit,/ But doomed it then when first Ardelia [Finch’s pen name] writ,” (Greenblatt et al, 2006, p. 2596). To counter that, Finch’s poem consists of lines like, “Alexander! have a care,/ And shock the sex no more,” and, “We rule the world our life’s whole race,/ Men but assume that right,” (Greenblatt et al, 2006, p. 2596).

Friendship is a theme that is hard to discern, at least in Mary Wroth’s sonnet “103”. At first, the poem could be about love, or a lost love. When reading in between the lines, it becomes obvious that the narrator is describing a relationship beyond love; “Leave the discourse of Venus and her son/ To young beginners,” (Greenblatt et al, 2006, p. 1461). Wroth is perhaps saying that passion such as new lover’s experience is not a part of the relationship being depicted.

One common thread of these four poems is honor. In their own way, each poem mentions honor as it relates to the situation in the poem. For example, Gray’s elegy says “Large was his Bounty & his heart sincere;/ Heaven did a Recompence as largely send./ He gave to misery all he had, a Tear,” (Greenblatt et al, 2006, p. A11). The character being described is full of honor and misery, even shedding a tear in his sad state. Wroth’s form of honor in “The Answer” comes when she writes, “Our admiration you command/ For all that’s gone before,” (Greenblatt et al, 2006, p. 2597). “The Answer” is an epigraph that demands respect of women, or the same honor that is bestowed on any man. Wroth speaks of honorable traits in her poem, like “truth, which shall eternal goodness prove,” (Greenblatt et al, 2006, p. 1461).

Greenblatt, et al. [Eds]. (2006). The norton anthology english literature (8th ed.). New York, NY: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc.

Lyrical Love Poems of the Renaissance

Sonnets are poems comprised of fourteen lines. An essential part of a sonnet is the rhyme scheme, which can flow like song lyrics. Many poets from the Renaissance era created a lyrical flow from their sonnets to express their thoughts about love, or to idolize their love of a woman with the use of blazons.

Thomas Campion's poem, "There is a garden in her face" compares a woman's face to a garden. The narrator of the poem describes the aspects of the woman's face to coincide with different parts of a garden. For example, the line "Those cherries fairly do enclose/ Of orient pearl a double row," refers to the woman's mouth (Greenblatt et al, 2006, p. 1230). Her mouth serves as the cherries that house her pearly teeth. To make sure that the reader understands that the woman is of fair repute, the narrator says of her mouth, "There cherries grow, which none may buy/ Till 'Cherry ripe!' themselves do cry," (Greenblatt et al, 2006, p. 1230). Although the woman has a delectable cherry mouth, she is not willing to let just anyone taste them. Other parts of her face guard her honor, like "Her eyes like angels watch them still;/ Her brows like bended bows do stand," (Greenblatt et al, 2006, p. 1230).

Other poets like Sidney, Shakespeare, and Spenser during the Renaissance era appeared to be preoccupied with the idea of love, or the idea of being in love with someone. Women were often compared with facets of nature, such as flowers. Women in the Elizabethan era must have been thought of as beautiful, dainty, and fragile if they were always being compared to flowers. In contemporary society, comparable lyrics from love songs are also preoccupied with love. However, instead of honoring love, modern lyrics lament love. The sad love song is more common and interesting than an uplifting love song.

Greenblatt, et al. [Eds]. (2006). The norton anthology english literature (8th ed.). New York, NY: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc.

The Satan of "Paradise Lost"

In John Milton's epic "Paradise Lost", one highly identifiable character would be Satan. During the story, he is referred to by several names, all of them associated with his opposition to God. A few names given to him by the author would be arch-fiend and apostate angel. He is also compared in size and intent to evil creatures such as the Titans Briareos or Typhon, or "that sea-beast/ Leviathan, which God of all his works/ created hugest that swim th' ocean stream," (Greenblatt et al, 2006, p. 1836). All of the recurrent motifs related to Satan showcase his ego and his aim to overthrow God. By comparing him to large creatures, he is center-stage and hard to miss. Not only that, but the creatures Satan was compared to have Christian ties to "Satan's revolt and punishment," (Greenblatt et al, 2006, p. 1836).

The reader is always reminded of Satan's combative nature with God, especially when his kingdom is described to be filled with lakes of fire, volcanoes, raging winds, stench and smoke, (Greenblatt et al, 2006, p. 1837). Satan himself details what Heaven looks like, and it is nothing like the Hell in which he must now reside: "that celestial light [...] Farewell happy fields/ Where joy forever dwells: Hail horrors, hail/ infernal world, and thou profoundest Hell," (Greenblatt et al, 2006, p. 1838). He has no problem renouncing the light of Heaven for darker pastures. Satan enjoys being as far away from God as possible, since distance is another form of rebellion.

References:

Greenblatt, et al. (Eds.). (2006). Teaching with the Norton anthology of English literature (8th ed.).New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company

The Lexicon of Geoffrey Chaucer

Geoffrey Chaucer was a British author born into the emerging middle class of Medieval England. He worked often for the aristocracy, thus his writing could have been biased when introducing characters of a higher social class. In his signature collection, "The Canterbury Tales", there are certain instances of diction that allude to the social status and moral nobility of each individual character.

In the General Prologue, there are three characters that are described at length: a knight, a nun, and an aristocrat. The knight is said to be "a worthy man/ [...who...] loved chivalrye/ trouthe and honour, freedom and curteisye," (Greenblatt et al, 2006, p. 219). Likewise, the nun is shown in a positive light when she is presented as a woman whose smile was, "ful simple and coy/ [...] Ful wel she soong the service divine," (Greenblatt et al, 2006, p. 221). However, when Chaucer goes into detail about an aristocrat (well, important churchman), his words are not flattering in the least; "His heed was balled, that shoon as any glas/ [...] He was a lord ful fat and in good point," (Greenblatt et al, 2006, p. 223). From these excerpts, one could assume that characters who served others or did not have much money held a greater regard than that of the aristocracy in parts of "The Canterbury Tales".

Greenblatt, et al. (Eds.). (2006). Teaching with the Norton Anthology of English Literature (8th ed.).New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company

Uses of Imagery in "The Wife of Bath"

While reading "The Wife of Bath's Prologue and Tale", many instances of imagery are apparent. Geoffrey Chaucer uses the narration of the wife of Bath to describe how men marginalize women unfairly. When speaking of her fourth husband, the wife says, "By God on earth, I was his purgatory/ for which I hope his soul lives now in glory,".

Earlier, she told of how he kept a mistress, therefore her allusion to maintaining a purgatory on earth was most likely revenge for his unchaste ways. Later, she goes on to say, 

"There was no one, save God and he, that knew/ How, in so many ways, I'd twist the screw,". In these lines of prose, the wife means that only she, her husband and the Divine Creator knew how she punished him for his adultery. Perhaps she did subtle things to make him sorry for what he had done, but they were humiliating nonetheless.

Lines and imagery like the ones mentioned give insights into the character the wife of Bath. While being married to her fourth husband, she described herself as 'young and full of passion'. Her naivety faded once she discovered her lascivious husband, and she hardened herself to make him suffer for hurting her. Overall, the insights from imagery in the story develop a plot that negates the chauvinistic view of women in society at the time. As a reader, the imagery evokes feelings of humor at the wife's approach to life, marriage and even virginity.

Greenblatt, et al. (Eds.). (2006). Teaching with the Norton Anthology of English Literature (8th ed.).New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company

American Poets in the 19th Century

Early American poets often had a sonorous tone, and at times their poems were even a bit long-winded. In comparison, the form of poems written later by Walt Whitman, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, and Emily Dickinson have a lighter quality to them throughout. In Whitman's poem, "Song of Myself", the reader's spirit is uplifted merely by reading the first line: "I celebrate myself, and sing myself," (McMichael & Leonard, 2011). Along with the happier tones, these poets also had a more lyrical approach to penning their stanzas. 

For example, while reading Longfellow's poem "A Psalm of Life", one can almost imagine pairing the words with a song, "Tell me not, in mournful numbers/ Life is but an empty dream/ For the soul is dead that slumbers/ and things are not what they seem," (McMichaels & Leonards, 2011). Dickinson had similar playful tones in her poems, such as in "There is no Frigate like a Book", "There is no frigate like a book/ to take us lands away/ nor any coursers like a page/ of prancing poetry," (McMichael & Leonard, 2011).

To further explore Dickinson's poetry, the significant images found in her poems would be love, identity, nature, and death, like her poem "Because I Could Not Stop for Death". These images might represent her life experiences, or her lack thereof. Perhaps she longed to live a different life, one full of excitement and beauty. Instead, she wrote about wonderful, sad, and beautiful things.

References:

McMichael, G. & Leonard, J. S. (2011). Concise anthology of american literature. (Eds.).

New York, NY: Pearson Education, Inc.

Better Government through the Eyes of Thoreau and Douglass

The United States has always been the ideal for a better life and the sought-after ‘all-American dream’. Thanks in large part to the founding fathers with their inspirational words and declarations, freedom of choice is available for each and every United States citizen: “We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness,”. While these words convey a sense of a just government coupled with equality for all, neither of those concepts were always implemented or accepted as the status quo. Before the Civil War, two great men had similar thoughts about what was wrong with the United States government: Henry David Thoreau and Frederick Douglass. Both of these men had entirely different backgrounds, but Thoreau’s Civil Disobedience and Douglass’ What to the Slave is the Fourth of July have much in common concerning the legitimacy of the laws at the time.

Civil Disobedience speaks of the fallacies of ‘big’ government. In fact, Thoreau believed in the idea of no government at all, claiming in his essay that when man was ready for it, they would govern themselves, (McMichael & Leonard, 2011). His ideas may have been rooted in common sense, but at the time they were radical. Radical was also the describing word for Douglass’ What to the Slave is the Fourth of July. He began by complimenting the founding fathers and their sacrifices, leading into a lamentation of slave’s oppressions in comparison with the ideas of freedom sustained only 76 years prior. Douglass explained quite eloquently how the Fourth of July was not a holiday to be enjoyed by all, because it was a celebration of freedom earned only for the white man. Slaves were in chains, at times literally, therefore the Fourth of July for a slave was a holiday that was a pantomime of freedom and equality. The arguments brought forth by Douglass and Thoreau appeared on the surface to be vastly different, but there are some common threads that bond them.

Essentially, Douglass and Thoreau both desired a better government. Thoreau demonstrated this in Civil Disobedience, “But, to speak practically and as a citizen, unlike those who call themselves no-government men, I ask for, not at once no government, but at once a better government,” (McMichael & Leonard, 2011). Douglass also displayed his will for an improved government in What to the Slave is the Fourth of July, “[…] nations number their years by thousands. According to this fact, you are[the United States], even now, only in the beginning of your national career, still lingering in the period of childhood. I repeat, I am glad this is so. There is hope in the thought, and hope is much needed, under the dark clouds which lower above the horizon,” (McMichael & Leonard, 2011). 

Civil Disobedience was not exactly an anti-slavery piece, but it called for men to use their conscience above all else, a sentiment which Douglass would have wholeheartedly agreed with, “Can there not be a government in which majorities do not virtually decide right and wrong, but conscience,” (McMichael & Leonard, 2011). Given Thoreau’s words, it can be safely assumed that he believed slavery to be an act unjustifiable, to be rectified by men with morals and a conscience.

The United States has had decades to evolve and learn from society’s many mistakes. However, over a hundred and fifty years ago, Henry David Thoreau’s Civil Disobedience and Frederick Douglass’ What to the Slave is the Fourth of July were two intelligent literary pieces that shared similar thoughts about the faults of the United States government and how to better it. Both men saw beyond themselves, differentiating what was truly important from the everyday monotonous tasks of human life. It takes a unique soul to recognize injustice, and an even braver soul to speak out against it. Thankfully, unique and brave men like Thoreau and Douglass paved the way for a better American way of living.

McMichael, G. & Leonard, J. S. (2011). Concise anthology of american literature. (Eds.).

New York, NY: Pearson Education, Inc.

Short Stories and Social Commentary

Nathaniel Hawthorne and Herman Melville wrote stories that had deeper meanings in relation to the societies that they were a part of. Specifically, "Young Goodman Brown" and "Bartleby, the Scrivener" have interesting social commentaries. Both of those stories also share relations to other authors, such as Franklin, Irving, and Edwards.

Hawthorne's short story "Young Goodman Brown" is a story of a man who's curiosity takes him to strange depths, inadvertently stripping him of his religious faith. He intends to merely take a small part in a clandestine meeting in the woods with unsavory characters. On the way, he sees more than just unsavory characters taking part in the meeting; the deacon of the church and even his wife are at the meeting over which presumably a demon resides. Upon the cessation of the meeting, Brown is not sure if the meeting was real or if it was only a dream. Either way, he is a deeply shaken and cynical man for the remainder of his life, never getting over his meeting the woods with the devil. Part of the social commentary made in this story would be a loss of innocence. Brown was sure of the morality of the people he cared for and respected, most importantly his wife, but he did not know what to think when confronted with their 'other' side, "There is no good on Earth; and sin is but a name. Come, devil; for to thee is this world given," (McMichael & Leonard, 2011). As a devout Puritan, the concept of black, white, and grey was beyond Brown; for him, there was only black and white. After his enlightenment in the woods about the duality of human nature, Brown saw only black.

Hawthorne's story has similar tones to the The Legend of Sleepy Hollow by Washington Irving. Both stories have a dark, ominous tone that creates a sense with the reader that there is no happy ending to be had, only a series of interesting (if unfortunate) events.

In Melville's "Bartleby, the Scrivener", the narrator tells the story of 'the oddest man he's ever met'. The narrator hires Bartleby out of necessity, but is soon very sorry that he ever did so. Bartleby is by nature a depressed individual, but his work ethic is not in question until the day he utters the line "I would prefer not to". That becomes his mantra whenever any task is asked of him, until the day comes that he ceases to do anything at all. Even after his laziness hits its peak, he does not leave. Eventually, the narrator chooses to move his business rather than throw Bartleby out. Even with new tenants in the building, Bartleby does not leave.

He is jailed for his incessant loitering, later dying in jail because he 'preferred not to' eat the food that is offered. In reflection, Bartleby's choices may have not been the right ones because they led to his death, but from an objective point of view, Bartleby was able to do whatever he wanted. He could shun his boss, friends (not that he had any), and his jailers in favor of maintaining his free will. Jonathan Edwards wrote a story with a similar note about free will, "Inquiry into the Freedom of the Will", (Emery, 1976, p. 170). However, Melville's story could also be highlighting the fact that slovenly behavior could lead to a dire end.

Emery, A., M. (1976). The alternatives of melville's bartleby. Nineteenth-Century Fiction. Retrieved on October 21, 2010, from the JSTOR Database.

McMichael, G. & Leonard, J. S. (2011). Concise anthology of american literature. (Eds.). New York, NY: Pearson Education, Inc.

Early American Gothic-Themed Stories

Washington Irving wrote two widely known and fantastical stories: "Rip Van Winkle" and "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow". Both stories are full of symbolism, metaphor, and societal conflicts. The story of "Rip Van Winkle" chronicles a lazy but kind man named Rip Van Winkle who basically hibernates through the prime of his life, in the post Revolutionary War-era. Upon awakening, he finds that the world has gone and changed on him, and the reader gets to experience the change behind the eyes of an objective man who had no part in the war.

 His new life is a symbol for the confusion and anxiety the town must have felt during and after the war. Poor Rip does not know what to do with himself until his daughter takes him in and he realizes his is free from the nagging of his dead wife, his own wife being a metaphor for how England controlled the colonies and then lost that control. At the time in the story, society was going through some intense changes and everyone had to choose a side before and during the war. While the town Rip hailed from may have been quiet before, after the war the townsfolk were proud of their independence and eager to show it, especially to an unknowing loyalist like Rip, "[I am] a loyal subject of the king!"

The "Legend of Sleepy Hollow" tells the tale of Ichabod Crane and his run-in with the Headless Horseman, the supposed specter haunting the town of Sleepy Hollow. Icabod Crane's character can be interpreted as a metaphor for the religious, ignorant, and superstitious populace of the time period in which the story itself was written. His superstitions were the end of him and any chance he may have hoped to have for a successful marriage with the town bachelorette, Katrina Van Tassel. Had he been more discerning, he may have discovered that the Headless Horsemen was merely his competitor for Katrina's hand in marriage, Brom Bones. It is not expressly stated in the story that Brom is responsible for the disappearance of Ichabod, but Brom was "to look exceedingly knowing whenever the story of Ichabod was related,". The Headless Horsemen, or Brom, could have symbolized how the weak and superstitious were stamped out for strength and revolution. Societal conflicts in the story include the town and it's dark, superstitious nature. The Headless Horsemen and the belief that he was real was the pinnacle of the town's utter lack of scientific understanding.

Edgar Allen Poe and many of his writings also feature symbolism, metaphors, and societal conflicts. His epic poem, "The Raven" is a depressing tale featuring a raven that will not leave the narrator alone. The raven may symbolize death and eternity since throughout the poem it continually quotes, "Nevermore,". Another well-known poem by Poe is entitled "Annabel Lee". The poem opens with the lines, "It was many and many a year ago/ In a kingdom by the Sea/". Poe uses the second line over and over in the poem, hammering home the symbol of love and loss felt by the narrator in the poem. While the couple was happy in their home by the sea, they made of it a kingdom. Yet, once she died, the kingdom became a dark place full of her memory. The entire poem is a metaphor for fairy tales, obvious from the first line in the poem. It is a fairytale that strays from the traditional happy ending, something that Poe himself never obtained, a recurrent societal conflict in much of his literary work.

Early American Writers

Thomas Paine and Red Jacket were two of early America's more notable writers and orators. Both men knew how to influence an audience with their skills of articulation, either through the written word, or during a speech or sermon. For example, Paine connects with the reader by laying out the facts, and including his own educated opinion into the matter, "Spain has ceded Louisiana to France, and France has excluded the Americans from N. Orleans and the navigation of the Mississippi [...] Suppose then the Government begin[s] by making a proposal to France to repurchase the cessation," (Hitchens, 1987, p. 71). Here, Paine was roughly outlining the idea for what would later become the Louisiana Purchase in a letter he wrote to Thomas Jefferson in 1802.

Red Jacket, a prominent figure in the world of Native Americans, often gave speeches to empower his fellow man. He had the foresight to know that his people were being taken advantage of, and his speeches said as much: "Brother, our feats were once large and yours were small. You have now become a great people, and we scarcely have a place left to spread our blankets. You have got our country, but are not satisfied. You want to force your religion upon us," (Costa Nunes, 1980, p. 6). The simple words Red Jacket used were strung together in such a way to create a sense of understanding and trust between him and his audiences. He was direct and concise, getting to the truth of the matter without preamble.

Concerning sermons and speeches, there is a difference. A sermon is a body of words that is meant to sway the reader or audience towards one side of a subject, whether it be of a religious nature or not. Whereas a speech can be a persuasive or objective address, such as a pro-life overview or a current state of affairs. This week's readings fall into the category of sermons because most of them were trying to convince the reader of something, like Paine spurring on a revolution and Red Jacket urging his people to use greater wisdom concerning the 'white' man.

References:

Costa Nunes, J. (1980). Red jacket: the man and his portraits. American Art Journal, 12 (3). Retrieved from JSTOR online database.

Hitchens, C. (1987). The actuarial radical: common sense about thomas paine. Grand Street, 7 (1). Retrieved from JSTOR online database.

Nature

Upon hearing the word nature, I am always reminded of Robert Frost’s poem Nothing Gold Can Stay. The imagery he uses symbolizes to me the beauty of nature and how it is fleeting:

Nature's first green is gold
Her hardest hue to hold.
Her early leaf's a flower;
But only so an hour.
Then leaf subsides to leaf.
So Eden sank to grief,
So dawn goes down to day.
Nothing gold can stay.

Nature was once revered by many cultures, and yet today, it is thought of last among the dominant countries like the United States and China who keep on contributing dangerous amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.

Native Americans held great respect for nature, a respect akin to religious beliefs. In The Iroquois League, there were many referrals to nature to describe their culture and way of governing. The leader of Iroquois League planted a tree, naming it the Tree of the Great Peace, and that was to be the meeting place when the leaders were ‘in session’.

“Roots have spread out from the Tree of the Great Peace, one to the north, one to the east, one to the south and one to the west. The name of these roots is The Great White Roots and their nature is Peace and Strength.”

This passage from The Iroquois League implies that the tree, or more accurately the peace accord with the other tribes, is widespread and as everlasting as a tree.

Jonathan Edwards, a theologian, Puritan, and preacher also admired nature and beauty. Although, sometimes his allusions to fire and other facets of nature were not always used in a way that was synonymous with the peace associated with the word nature:

“[Sinners] are as great heaps of light chaff before the whirlwind; or large quantities of dry stubble before devouring flames. We find it easy to tread on and crush a worm that we see crawling on the earth; so it is easy for us to cut or singe a slender thread that any thing hangs by: thus easy is it for God, when he pleases, to cast his enemies down to hell,” (Sinners, 2009).

Nature and all of its connotations can hold different meaning and value depending on the person’s perception of peace, strength, and clarity.

References:

Sinners. (2009). Sinners in the hands of an angry god by jonathan edwards. Retrieved on October 4, 2010 from http://www.iclnet.org/pub/resources/text/history/spurgeon/web/edwards.sinners.html

Fire and Brimstone

If "Pilgrims and Puritans literally believed that all humankind was stained by Adam's fall,", one has to wonder how much further they would cast their judgments on modern society.

One such Puritan, Jonathan Edwards, condemned many for their lifestyle choices, including "wicked, unbelieving Israelites,". In his sermon Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God, there are several statements he makes that alludes to the belief that humankind is inherently tainted, like "The use of this awful subject may be for awakening unconverted persons in this congregation [...] That world of misery, that lake of burning brimstone, is extended abroad under you,".

To further scare his congregation into compliance, Edwards goes on to describe how the wicked among them shall be punished, "There is the dreadful pit of the glowing flames of the wrath of God; there is hell's wide gaping mouth open; and you have nothing to stand upon, nor any thing to take hold of; there is nothing between you and hell but the air; it is only the power and mere pleasure of God that holds you up,".

A sermon delivered by Edwards in the 21st century would not have the same impact as it did in 1741, because many of the modern populace believes in a more forgiving God than the angry torturer described in detail in Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God. In 1741, perhaps churchgoers believed that if they had one sinful thought or committed one sinful deed, then God would come down upon them with all of the wrath he could muster. In today's world, people adhere to a moral code, but not one that is so restricted based on fear of retaliation from their God. Hopefully, modern individuals adheres to a moral code because they know it is the right thing to do, God or no God.

Anything but Savage

Although John Smith’s early accounts of the Native Americans painted a picture of savage animals, actual history accounts dispute most of his biased findings. One need only read The Constitution of the Five Nations (or The Great Binding Law) to see how civilized the Native Americans were.

Nature was prevalent throughout The Great Binding Law. At times, nature served as a source of symbolism that the Iroquois could draw upon to explain certain aspects of The Constitution of the Five Nations:

“Roots have spread out from the Tree of the Great Peace [...] and their nature is Peace and Strength [...] If any man or any nation outside the Five Nations [...] promise to obey the wishes of the Confederate Council, they shall be welcomed to take shelter beneath the Tree of the Long Leaves.”

One practical role nature played in The Great Binding Law was the opening of each Council meeting. Fire was the representation for the beginning of a meeting:

“When the Lords are assembled the Council Fire shall be kindled, but not with chestnut wood, and Adodarhoh shall formally open the Council.”

In regards to the United States Constitution, the Iroquois system of government was somewhat of an influence. The three branches of government used in the United States was also practiced by the Iroquois:

“The Council of the Mohawk shall be divided into three parties [...] The third party is to listen only to the discussion of the first and second parties and if an error is made or the proceeding is irregular they are to call attention to it, and when the case is right and properly decided by the two parties they shall confirm the decision of the two parties and refer the case to the Seneca Lords for their decision.”

Their democratic system of government impressed such founding fathers as Benjamin Franklin and James Madison, (Iroquois, 2002). When excerpts from Iroquois law were read aloud at the Constitutional Convention, there was one line that was very remarkable, "We, the people, to form a union, to establish peace, equity, and order..." (Mee, 1987, p. 237).

References:

Iroquois. (2007). The constitution of the iroquois nations: the great binding law gayanashagowa. Retrieved on September 30, 2010, from http://tuscaroras.com/pages/history/iroquois_constitution_1.html

Mee, L, C. (1987). The Genius of the People. New York: Harper & Row